[12] Trade was also conducted through a mechanism of barter and credit. Maji-Maji Uprising (Tanganyika) 4. Later Nigerian troops were sent to East Africa. Much of the human trafficking which occurred there was nominally illegal, and records from this time and place are not comprehensive. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.[26]. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. Jaja of Opobo allied with hrs old friends namely Alobo and Onaba to resist the British colonialists in the Niger Delta states. With one man in practical control of the Executive and Legislative organs of all the parts, the machine may work passably for sufficient time to enable the transition period to be left behind, by which time the answer to the problemUnitary v. Federal Statewill probably have become clear. In the 1850s, quinine had been found to combat malaria, and aided by the medicine, a Liverpool merchant, Macgregor Laird, opened the river. Economic Impact The [] On January 1, 1914, following the recommendations of Sir Frederick Lugard, the two protectorates were amalgamated to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria under a single governor-general resident in Lagos. The British entry into World War I saw the confiscation of Nigerian palm oil firms operated by expatriates from the Central Powers. How did Africans resist c. Taxes became a source of discontent in the south, however, and contributed to disturbances protesting British policy. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. The British, like other newcomers to the slave trade, found . They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. The British answered this activity by attempting to create a more representational colonial system. The forces unleashed against the British were now diverse, including soldiers who had served in World War II, the media, restless youth, market women, educated people, and farmers, all of whom became committed to the anticolonial movement. Revolts in against water rates and the alienation of indigenous land in 1908 and 1911 served to unite native African elites and working class residents. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. [8] British influence in the region began with the prohibition of slave trade to British subjects in 1807. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. Although colonial rule appeared secure in the first two decades of the 20th century, the British struggled to keep control of their Nigerian colony and continued to do so until Nigeria became independent in 1960. Resistance movements began to rise in . The trade subsequently continued under the Portuguese Empire. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. The early history of Lagos Colony was one of repeated attempts to end the Yoruba wars. [65], Half of all taxes went to the colonial government and half went to the Native Treasury. The trend was toward the establishment of a parliamentary system of government, with regional assemblies and a federal House of Representatives. vestigation of the forms of primary resistance by Africans to the impo-sition of colonial rule in the classic period of European imperialism, say from 1880 to 1914. B. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to Muslim Arab slave traders. Du Bois. The essential basis of this system was a money economyspecifically the British pound sterlingwhich could be demanded through taxation, paid to cooperative natives, and levied as a fine. By 1919 the National Council of British West Africa, an organization consisting of elites across West Africa, was demanding that half the members of the Legislative Council be Africans; they also wanted a university in West Africa and more senior positions for Africans in the colonial civil service. As a latecomer in the struggle for colonies, Germany had to settle for four territories, called "protectorates," in . But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. [59], Following the order recommended by the Niger Committee, the Colonial Office merged Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate on 1 May 1906, forming a larger protectorate (still called the Southern Nigeria Protectorate) which spanned the coastline between Dahomey and Cameroon. In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. [67], This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. [16] Starting in 1740, the British were the primary European slave trafficker from this area. To some extent, competition amongst these companies undermined their collective position vis--vis, local merchants. By 18261850, the British Royal Navy was intervening significantly with Lagos slave exports. British influence in the Niger area increased gradually over the . Falola, Toyin, Ann Genova, and Matthew M. Heaton. Throughout this period of reign, many changes were made to their . Under the Political Department of the Civil Service were Residents and District Officers, responsible for overseeing operations in each region. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. There were numerous differences of detail among the regional systems, but all adhered to parliamentary forms and were equally autonomous in relation to the Nigerian federal government at Lagos. After initially adopting an indirect rule approach, in 1906 the British merged the small Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate into a new Colony of Southern Nigeria, and in 1914 that was combined with the Northern Nigeria Protectorate to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. Lugard's governmental model for Nigeria was unique and there was apparently not much planning for its future development. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. Anticolonialism in the twentieth and twenty-first century refers to two interconnected concepts: a historical event and a critical analytic. The first missions were opened by the Church of England's Church Missionary Society (CMS). Macaulay was despised by the British, but he came to be regarded as the father of modern Nigerian nationalism.. . Rebellions Against Colonial Rule Before the Second World War. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 18861914". After the defection of Kano, the only significant disagreement within the NPC was related to moderates. [73] The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including, travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households. Political opposition to colonial rule often assumed religious dimensions. It was guerrilla warfare in the case of the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya (1952-60) and Zimbabwe's war of independence (1965-79); it was all . It occurs when one nation subjugates another, conquering its population and exploiting it, often while . In these territories, violent resistance brought colonial rule to a close. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from Nyasaland and established British presence in Uganda. Three constitutions were enacted from 1946 to 1954. The British Culture in Nigeria. The principal commodities of legitimate trade were palm oil and palm kernels, which were used in Europe to make soap and as lubricants for machinery before petroleum products were developed for that purpose. [57], Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network. Portuguese Roman Catholic priests who accompanied traders and officials to the West African coast introduced Christianity to the Edo Empire in the fifteenth century. African resistance to colonial rule began with A) The arrival of the Europeans on the continent in the late 19th century B) The end of World War II C) . Nigeria did not come into being until 1914, when the consort of a colonial Governor-General, Flora Shaw and her man, the fascist Lord Lugard willed and named Nigeria into being, with the dubious . The discussion of pragmatic resistance in Africa comes full circle with the former Portuguese colonies, South Africa, and Kenya. The election of the House of Representatives after the adoption of the 1954 constitution gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. Otherwise, the Governor-General's office was essentially ceremonial. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the Richards Constitution. Nigerians also requested more political representation. Two tiers of government emerged, central and local. A chief of Bonny in 1860 explained that he refused a British treaty due to the tendency to "induce the Chiefs to sign a treaty whose meaning they did not understand, and then seize upon the country".[14]. (During World War II they again served in East Africa, as well as in Burma [now Myanmar].) Public works, such as harbour dredging and road and railway construction, opened Nigeria to economic development. Retrieved October 11, 2014 from. Initially, most palm oil (and later kernels) came from Igboland, where palm trees formed a canopy over the densely inhabited areas of the Ngwa, Nri Kingdom, Awka and other Igbo peoples. [77] Its revenue quickly increased, from 4,424 in 1901 to 274,989 in 1910. The Action Group, which staged a lively campaign, favoured stronger government and the establishment of three new states while advocating the creation of a West Africa Federation that would unite Nigeria with Ghana and Sierra Leone. The nationalism that became a political factor in Nigeria during the interwar period derived both from an older political particularism and broad pan-Africanism, rather than from any sense among the people of a common Nigerian nationality. Because of the hazards of climate and tropical diseases for Europeans and the absence of any centralized authorities on the mainland responsive to their interests, European merchants moored their ships outside harbours or in the delta, and used the ships as trading stations and warehouses. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. The Niger Delta and Calabar, which once had been known for the export of slaves, became notable for the export of palm oil. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. Colonial Nigeria was ruled by the British Empire from the mid-nineteenth century until 1960 when Nigeria achieved independence. The Colonial Office could veto or revise his policies. While initially organised for professional and fraternal reasons, these were centres of educated people who had chances to develop their leadership skills in the organisations, as well as form broad social networks. He shows that, long before the growth of a mass independence movement in the wake of the second world war, there was considerable opposition to colonial rule. By the end of World War I, most of Africa had been effectively colonized. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. A lack of interest in extending the NPC beyond the Northern Region corresponded to this strictly regional orientation. A.J. Frequently African armies of 20, 000 were defeated by European-led armies of 2,000 or less. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. [22] Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed Samuel Ajayi Crowther as the first Anglican Bishop of the Niger. In: The Journal of African History: (1990 . Subsequent revisions contained in the Lyttleton Constitution, enacted in 1954, firmly established the federal principle and paved the way for independence. [36], The company, as was common among European businesses in Africa, paid its native workers in barter. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. The Portuguese sold slaves as a way to "obtain spices and weapons in other areas" (Alme). [31], In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".[32]. Samori Ture 7. Until he stepped down as Governor-General in 1918, Lugard primarily was concerned with consolidating British sovereignty and with assuring local administration through traditional rulers. Adam Smith wrote in 1776 that the African societies were better established and more populous than those of the Americas, thus creating a more formidable barrier to European expansion. Each was under a Lieutenant Governor and provided independent government services. However, in October 1929 in Oloko a census related to taxation was conducted, and the women in the area suspected that this was a prelude to the extension of direct taxation, which had been imposed on the men the previous year. [19], West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 3040% of the demand for British cotton during the Industrial Revolution of 17501790.[27]. He was prepared to introduce educational and economic changes to strengthen the north. After the Willink Commission examined and reported on this issue in 1958, independence was granted. It was replaced by a new coalition government led by David Lloyd George featuring Conservatives and Lloyd George's supporters in the Liberal Party, while Asquith and the remainder of the Liberals entered opposition.[69]. In 1916, Sir Edward Carson led the majority of the Conservative and Unionist Party to vote against Party Leader Bonar Law on the issue, forcing it to withdraw from the Asquith coalition and for the government to begin to break apart. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 19401947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'. Armed resistance decreased in the 1920s but protest continued, "characterised by civil rights and civil . The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909, This page was last edited on 30 January 2023, at 05:21. what were negative effects of colonial rule in african continent. By the eighteenth century, evidence of Christianity had disappeared. Under Goldie's direction, the Royal Niger Company was instrumental in depriving France and Germany of access to the region. Nigeria is a country in West Africa and was colonized by the British. I would encourage the society to resist by declaring a war against the Europeans. Today, Lagos remains Nigeria's financial capital and, as home to an estimated eight million people, ranks . In 1916 Lugard formed the Nigerian Council, a consultative body that brought together six traditional rulersincluding the Sultan of Sokoto, the Emir of Kano and the Oba of Beninto represent all parts of the colony. These policies met with ongoing resistance. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdividedNorthern, Western and Eastern regions. You are right my brother. Britain annexed Lagos in 1861 and established the Oil River Protectorate in 1884. An example was that at Onitsha, where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Indigenous Resistance to New Colonialism. Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.[68]. Lagos remained the capital of the south, with Zungeru the new capital of the north. Acephalous . nigeria resistance to colonial rule. The Sokoto jihad and the Yoruba wars stimulated the slave trade at a time when the British were actively trying to stop it. Other European powers acknowledged Britain's dominance over the area in the 1885 Berlin Conference. Locally this involved the immediate invasion of the German-held Kamerun (Cameroon) by Nigerian forces, followed by a costly campaign that lasted until 1916. European colonialists had managed to quell the efforts by Africans to resist the establishment of colonial rule with one exception. We also understand that the said National African Company (limited) have full power to mine, farm, and build in any portion of our territory. Antrobus, Fiddes and Strachey in the Colonial Office promoted amalgamation, along with Lugard. The delegation was led by Balewa of the NPC and included party leaders Awolowo of the Action Group, Azikiwe of the NCNC, and Bello of the NPC; they were also the premiers of the Western, Eastern and Northern regions, respectively. of British Colonial Nigeria. For example, many people in Ibadan opposed Awolowo on personal grounds because of his identification with the Ijebu Yoruba. His government guided the country for the next three years, operating with almost complete autonomy in internal affairs. Officials of the Sokoto Caliphate considered these treaties quite differently; from their perspective, the British were granted only extraterritorial rights that did not prevent similar arrangements with the Germans and the French and certainly did not surrender sovereignty. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Alan Lennox-Boyd, M.P., the British Secretary of State for the Colonies. [10], Following military conquest, the British imposed an economic system designed to profit from African labor. 1. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the Western Region. The officers of the RWAFF were British. In her . The most powerful figure in the party was Ahmadu Bello, the Sardauna of Sokoto. Gandhi. In the north, for instance, legislation took the form of a decree cosigned by the Governor and the emir, while in the south, the Governor sought the approval of the Legislative Council. Colonial official A. J. Harding commented in 1913: Sir F. Lugard's proposal contemplates a state which it is impossible to classify. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the Catholic missionaries waned. Resistance to colonial rule was mitigated to the extent that local authorities and courts were able to manage affairs. British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston detested slavery, and in 1851 he took advantage of divisions in native politics, the presence of Christian missionaries, and the maneuvers of British consul John Beecroft to encourage the overthrow of the regime. Deadly battles broke out sporadically through 1906. If the emirs accepted British authority, abandoned the slave trade, and cooperated with British officials in modernizing their administrations, the colonial power was willing to confirm them in office. In fact, while the southern delegates pressed for [9] Administration and military control of the territory was conducted primarily by white Britons, both in London and in Nigeria. Among his leading lieutenants were Samuel Akintola of Ogbomoso and the Oni of Ife, the most important of the Yoruba monarchs. Political leaders resorted to the use of political parties and the media to mobilize millions of Nigerians against the continuation of British rule. Colonization of Nigeria. The so-called Macpherson Constitution, after the incumbent Governor-General John Stuart Macpherson, went into effect the following year. [51], Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the Earl of Selborne, in 1898. Mordi, Emmanuel Nwafor. Colonial Nigeria was ruled by the British Empire from the mid-nineteenth century until 1960 when Nigeria achieved independence. The company negotiated treaties with Sokoto, Gwandu and Nupe that were interpreted as guaranteeing exclusive access to trade in return for the payment of annual tribute. Main aim. The central government, presided over by the governor-general and accountable to the secretary for the colonies in London, was more powerful but distant from the people. The decrease in trade indirectly led to the collapse of states like the Edo Empire. Nigeria: ColonizationKatie Graham. At that time many scholars believed that Nigeria was able to develop into a stable and fast-growing state due to its huge potential. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.[67]. At the urging of Governor Frederick Lugard, the two territories were amalgamated as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria, while maintaining considerable regional autonomy among the three major regions (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate and the Colony of Lagos). In case of resistance by one of its friends the other would join hands to mount formidable resistance against colonial rule e.g. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disasterthe Great Drought of 191314. Local administration, where the colonial citizens typically experienced colonial authority, was based on the policy of indirect rule first developed in the north. Play off ethnic and social divisions . practice of indirect rule, Brown contends that culture industries like Nollywood can sustain capitalism . It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. Beecroft was the British representative to Fernando Po, where the African Slave Trade Patrol of the Royal Navy was stationed. The NPC captured 142 seats in the new legislature. of the Belgian colonial rule that eventually gave rise to a violent resistance against colonial rule, and the repression of this resistance resulted in the . I will be dealing almost exclusively with the areas of East and Central Africa - Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe - where a more or less coherent debate can be seen. In 1946 a new constitution was approved by the British Parliament at Westminster and promulgated in Nigeria. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as Marcus Garvey and W.E.B. Regional administrations also varied widely in the quality of local personnel and in the scope of the operations they were willing to undertake. Although there was strong resistance from natives against the British, it was all crushed by the British. The Royal Navy bombarded Lagos in November 1851, ousted the pro-slavery Oba Kosoko and established a treaty with the newly installed Oba Akintoye, who was expectedly more amenable to British interests. [32], In 1880, the British Government and traders demonetised the Maria Theresa dollar, to the considerable dismay of its local holders, in favour of the pound sterling. . In the year 1901, Nigeria officially became a part of the huge British Empire. [76], The British treasury initially supported the landlocked Northern Nigeria Protectorate with grants, totalling 250,000 or more each year. The Action Group was largely the creation of Chief Obafemi Awolowo, General Secretary of Egbe Omo Oduduwa and leader of the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. resistance and successfully imposed colonial rule should attest to the point that African military resistance was ineffectual. The protectorate was organised to control and develop trade coming down the Niger. Despite his somewhat successful efforts to enlist non-Yoruba support, the regionalist sentiment that had stimulated the party initially continued. During World War II, Awolowo reorganized it as a predominantly Yoruba political party, the Action Group. [23] Regardless, slavery had decimated the population and fuelled militarisation and chaos, thereby paving the way for more aggressive colonisation.[21][24]. This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to . Although realistic in its assessment of the situation in Nigeria, the Richards Constitution undoubtedly intensified regionalism as an alternative to political unification. 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